The importance of architecture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The importance of architecture - Essay Example Moreover, education in architectural discipline has had significant impact on build architectural work. Jacob (Para 1) argues that the role of architects in the contemporary public life have been significantly reduced. They are either viewed as intellectuals in the public or engrossed in the agenda or policy formulations that define the contemporary environment of built. The earlier traditional roles have sublimed. The practices and processes have been undermined by rise of other specialties in the built environment. This is quite different for the period immediately after World War 1 as well as in the eighties when architecture was the main activity of the construction of the civil society. However, today architect, construction and development are viewed as holistically a private enterprise. The increasing networking of the society has continued to transform. Consequently, the relationship of the world and designs has also changed. In addition, the advancement of technology and communication has been the driving factors in the changes in the architectural field and phenomenon that r esult from the changes. In the architect of perception, spaces were designed in architectural works to ignite senses of individuals. It is usually assumed that qualities of spaces in terms of visibility dominate the perception of the society concerning building or structures (The Angry Architect Para 1). Over the years, some architects and artists have done experiments on some specific devices for sensory purposes. The spaces that have been designed in the architectural field to transform the qualities of architectural designs are: sound, touch, smell, sight, and taste. For example, when the significance of sound is incorporated in the architectural work or building, the design of the building may be that which provides a silent environment. However, on some cases a particular sound may not be preserved. Dunton

Disc 13 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Disc 13 - Essay Example This results to; blaming religion rather than learning about it, not knowing our own religious traditions and substituting choice for cohesion. (Levine paragraph1). In Middle East, India and Asia, women are oppressed and marginalized. A contrast to what many of them see themselves as honored by their tradition as they honor it. The headscarf is a sign of personal modesty and religious identity though it may be considered as a limitation to choice. As for sitting behind the mechitza, this is discrimination but for them it’s a great place to find women’s solidarity. Even though this is discrimination and marginalization, the women of this region are proud of their religious tradition. In conclusion, the article is informative and fair. The author points out different religious practices and explains their strengths and even some traditions which may be considered out dated without creating animosity among the affected. (Levine

Merton’s Theory of Scientific Ethos

Merton’s Theory of Scientific Ethos Robert Merton and the institutional imperatives of organised science. Do you think that the normative structure of science is working today? Why? Robert Merton has been hailed as the most important American sociologist of the 20th century[1]. His oeuvre includes works on the theory of knowledge, the sociology of science as well as functional and structural analysis. This essay will examine one of the most significant claims of Merton, that is that science is regulated by four distinct norms. While his work has arguably to the foundation of a whole academic discipline[2], the normative notion of science itself unites various strands of enquiry that are testament to the diverse personal and scientific interests of Merton. In nuce, Merton’s claim that science is essentially a normative endeavour conducted to the tune of shared ethical rules, straddles the fields of the philosophy of science and theories of knowledge just as it draws on assumptions located in the domain of moral philosophy and the theory of truth. The essay will approach this complex in the following way. First, Merton’s claims will be outlined in as much detail as possible. Second, the essay will sketch the main lines of criticism that Merton’s theory of scientific ethos has attracted. Finally, an example of scientific debate will be examined in view of Merton’s claim that will allow us to assess the validity and usefulness of Merton’s theory. Merton’s thesis about the normative structure of science goes back to an article he published originally in 1942, early on in his career[3]. The essay is short and, with the exception of mentioning two works by Talcott Parsons, makes no references to its immediate philosophical context, the emerging sociology of science. Furthermore, Max Weber is not mentioned at all throughout the piece. Nevertheless the article has become one of the most celebrated and debated publications in the theory of science. Merton contends that science is characterised by four interconnected but distinct organisational principles. These principles are ethical in nature and function as structural imperatives for science. First, science is universal insofar as contributions to it are ‘assessed on merit and significance’[4]. Second, scientists judge scientific theses against empirical material that is available, and ‘suspend judgement’ until all the facts are known. Merton calls this ‘a methodological and institutional mandate’[5]. Third, Merton maintains that scientists are committed to disinterestedness, and do not regard self-interest as a viable motivation for scientific work. The objective for scientists is to advance scientific knowledge rather than personal interests. Fourth, scientific knowledge that has proven to be reliable and accurate is to be readily available to every member of the scientific community, a phenomenon that Merton calls ‘communismâ₠¬â„¢. [6] Merton’s sketch of all four principles in the article is brief. Organised scepticism receives especially short shrift with just about two paragraphs[7]. In these two paragraphs Merton conspicuously fails to provide a definition of it altogether and instead discusses the wider context of this ‘methodological and institutional mandate’[8] for scientists. The question is whether Merton has presented a picture of science that is accurate today. The problem is that it is not quite clear what Merton actually says. He has been praised for his eloquence, but his admirable articulacy sometimes obscures the meaning of his thesis. The essay will now examine some of the more obvious criticisms. The first difficulty concerns the main thrust of Merton’s argument. In arguing that four normative principles organise scientific endeavour, is he making a normative or descriptive point? Are these observations of empirical nature or do they outline prescriptive ideals that ought to guide scientists in their work? We may take Merton’s thesis to articulate some more general prescriptive standards of science, which ideally ought to be applied in the scientist’s work in order to facilitate scientific progress. [9] Merton makes a point then which requires empirical verification. He has to show that science conducted in this way promotes scientific advancement which scientific work conducted contrary to these norms would not. Understandably this is hard to prove. It requires a historical argument, a narrative of successful scientific development, which to a certain degree he attempts to provide in his article.[10] So what does Merton try to say with his four criteria? The list of norms does not allow us to differentiate between valid and invalid science. It also fails to provide us with guidance as to what good and bad science is in a more general context. Perhaps at some time in the future, science requires secrecy and the exclusion of some parts of the scientific community from the results of scientific work. In fact, critics pointed out that Merton’s thesis works on the peculiar assumption that only academic science is science. Industrial research must by nature fail to comply with his standards of enquiry and hence cannot aspire to be science[11]. A nonsensical conclusion since much of sciences progress is owed to research in an economic and entrepreneurial environment, conducted for reasons of profit and the furtherance of self-interest. Yet, perhaps all these interpretations of Merton’s argument overlook the obvious. Possibly, his four standards of scientific discovery only make an observation on the nature of science in general. In this way Merton must be understood to make a simply descriptive point that scientific conduct is regulated by norms that may not always be explicit and unarticulated. If we would take him to argue this, his argument then all of a sudden fits into the wider functional theory of science that he was keen to advocate[12]. Merton argues that the adherence to the four norms produces a system of knowledge that has features that we associate with science, and which have subsequently have come to be synonymous with science. The scientific ethos is then only a historical by-product and Merton’s succinct formulation of this ethos in four principles of scientific behaviour simply describes the way in which science is done. Research that does not comply with these standards may still be science but does not contribute to science as a coherent system of human behaviour. Merton’s normative structure of science thus tells us something about the way in which science has come to sustain itself as a system of knowledge[13]. The four standards of scientific enquiry fulfil a function in generating systematic knowledge that contributes to the advancement of science as a coherent system of human interaction within a (academic) community. Critics have pointed out that this vision of science is not less problematic than the ones we have sketches above. Two general accusations have been levelled against this Mertonian notion of science. The first criticism argues that Merton is simply stating the obvious or, even worse, that his argument is tautological[14]. The second criticism is of different calibre and claims that Merton’s normative vision of science advocates one particular type of scientific endeavour that de-legitimises other forms of research[15]. Both criticisms warrant some closer examination. The first criticism is easily outlined and echoes some points made earlier. If Merton believes that the normative principles structure scientific knowledge then he can be taken to make either of two points which are different in scope and nature. First, he may simply be stating the obvious, describing the way in which science is being conducted. Any future changes to this may result in the end of science as we know it and as a coherent sub-system of human conduct but may give rise to the development of a new system of science, along different, yet unknown lines. Norms and standards, in this scheme of things, are contingent yet critical for the type of science that is currently institutionalised universally. Unless Merton attaches some value to this current form of science, his observation is bordering on the tautological, since it fails to tell us anything about the way in which we ought to do things in science. If he does associate the current state of science with a particular valu e, he needs to tell us what is so valuable about this specific type of science, an issue that philosophers of science discuss through the lens of scientific innovation[16]. Philosophically, this requires some wider justification, something that Merton fails to do. In fact, there is a plethora of criticism that targets exactly the kind of (modern) science that Merton seems to find commendable. Feminist and environmentalist criticism abounds. So there is evidence to the contrary that he would have to confront. The second criticism draws on radical theory and maintains that Merton’s normative notion of science acts as a gatekeeper to exclude other, conflicting visions of science. His theory of scientific endeavour thus fulfils a political function that translates into the suppression of deviant forms of scientific conduct. Bourdieu makes this claim forcefully in an article on Merton’s sociology of science in 1990 when in an unflattering way he calls Merton’s work ‘a hagiographic vision’[17]. Further on he writes: †¦ if Merton takes note of the existence of the work of scientific production, he continues to apply to it analytical categories which hare imposed on him by this very world itself, so that what he present as a description of its positive laws of functioning is often little more than a record of the normative rules which are officially professed by its members. He therefore departs only in appearance from the ‘internal’ reading†¦[18] This is a damning observation since the critical content of Merton’s theory of normative science resides in its ability to provide an external as well as internal picture of what scientists do[19]. If Merton, as Bourdieu claims, only replicates in his vision of science the self-understanding of scientists, his theory is little more than self-congratulatory contribution to identity formation in the scientific community. On a more sinister note, propagating these standards of scientific enquiry would deny other scientifically orientated behaviour the badge of honour. Merton’s theory of normative science would then become the main vehicle for defending a particular version of science, resting on values and principles that are far from universal. This is the point where theory spills over into institutional practice and may result in exclusion of scientists that fail to conform to a particular type of scientific behaviour. A brief example may demonstrate this problem. In 1994 two American professors published ‘The Bell Curve’, a sociological investigation into the link between race and intelligence[20]. Their work presented ample empirical material while their conclusions were particularly repugnant. The book included an argument for and against various social policies and therefore the authors deliberately placed their work in a political context. Although they adhered to all obvious scientific standards critics labelled the book as a political treatise with a foul set of conclusions. One of these conclusions was the authors maintained that there was evidence that African Americans were of inferior intelligence to White Americans. There can be no doubt that this repulsive claim strikes everyone who does not harbour racist attitudes as demonstrably false. Academic critics consequently slated the books’ premises and conclusions and pointed to a whole array of either ethical or method ological inconsistencies in the work[21]. What does this mean in the context of Mertonian imperatives for scientific discovery? First of all, Merton’s vision of science claims that disinterestedness is a norm of scientific enquiry, hence however abhorrent the conclusions are scientists must pay no heed to the social or political ramifications of their endeavours if they wanted to preserve science as a coherent system of human activity. Given the social context of race studies this is a plea for unethical behaviour while salvaging an internal code of practice that may have repellent consequences. To contend that scientists can conduct their enquiries in a bubble of self-contained norms is nonsensical. It is far more likely that scientists constantly re-negotiate the standards and norms of their work[22]. Science is a social endeavour, yet the social norms that apply to scientific conduct are drawn from wider society not from the reclusive community of academics only. Secondly, however, it is exactly the violation of the proclaimed standards of scientific behaviour which allows scientists to re-assert and re-evaluate the boundaries of science as a particular type of human conduct. Adherence to the self-professed norms thus does not advance science as a body of knowledge but produces a sterile and eventually inert body of knowledge that lost its connection with the purpose of scientific enquiry, to better the human condition. Thus science is in a constant process of boundary revision and definition, interacting with society and its needs. Merton’s internalist functionalist vision of science cannot accommodate this aspect of scientific endeavour and hence fails to acknowledge the actual purpose of science in the wider context as well as its resources for constructive change and transformation. References Pierre Bourdieu. Animadversiones in Mertonem. In Robert K. Merton. Consensus and Controversy, edited by Jon Clark, Celia Modgil, and Sohan Modgil. London New York Philadelphia: Falmer Press 1990, pp.297-301. Cynthia Fuchs Epstein. Seredipitous Science and The Prepared Mind: Merton on the Microenvironments of Discoveries. In Contemporary Sociology. A Journal of Reviews, September 2005, Vol.34, No.5, pp.477-453. Steven Fraser (ed.). The Bell Curve Wars. Race, Intelligence and the Future of America. New York: Basic Books 1995. Lowell L. Hargens. What is Mertonian Sociology of Science? In Scientometrics, Vol. 60 (2004), No.1, pp.63-70. R. Herrnstein and C. Murray. The Bell Curve. New York: Free Press 1994. John Law and David French. Normative and Interpretive Sociologies of Science. In The Sociological Review, 22 (1974), pp.581-595. Robert K. Merton. The Normative Structure of Science [1942]. In Robert K. Merton. The Sociology of Science. Theoretical and Empirical Investigations. Edited and with an Introduction by Norman W. Storer. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, pp.267-278. Nico Stehr. Robert K. Merton’s Sociology of Science. In Robert K. Merton. Consensus and Controversy, edited by Jon Clark, Celia Modgil, and Sohan Modgil. London New York Philadelphia: Falmer Press 1990, pp.285-294. Nina Toren. The Scientific Ethos Debate: A Meta-Theoretical View. In Sic. Sci. Med., Vol. 17, No. 21 (1983), pp.1665-1672. Jonathan H. Turner. The Structure of Sociological Theory. Homewood: The Dorsey Press 1978. 1 Footnotes [1] Epstein, Serendipitous Science, p.447 [2] On the background of the sociology of science cf. Hargens, Mertonian sociology. [3] Merton, Normative Structure. [4] Toren, Scientific Ethos Debate, p.1666 [5] Merton, Normative Structure, p.277 [6] Merton, Normative Structure, p.273-275 [7] Merton, Normative Structure, p.277-278 [8] Merton, Normative Structure, p.277 [9] Toren, Scientific Ethos Debate, p.1667 [10] Merton calls for a ‘comparative study of the institutional structure of science’. Merton, Normative Structure, p.269 [11] Stehr, Merton’s Sociology of Science, p.286 [12] For his contribution to functionalism cf. Turner, Structure of Sociological Theory, pp.69-76 [13] Law and French, Normative and Interpretive Sociologies, p.584-585 [14] Toren, Scientific Ethos Debate, p.1666; Bourdieu, Animadversiones, p.299 [15] Law and French, Normative and Interpretive Sociologies, p.585 [16] Law and French, Normative and Interpretive Sociologies, p.581-585; Toren, Scientific Ethos Debate, p.1668 [17] Bourdieu, Animadversiones, p.298 [18] Bourdieu, Animadversiones, p.298 [19] Stehr, Robert K. Merton’s Sociology, p.289 and Law and French, Normative and Interpretive Sociologies, p.582 [20] R. Herrnstein and C. Murray. The Bell Curve. New York: Free Press 1994 [21] cf. Steven Fraser (ed.). The Bell Curve Wars. New York: Basic Book 1995 [22] Law and French, Normative and Interpretive Sociologies, p.586

Process of Learning Essay -- Education Essays Observational Cognitive

There are many ways that children and adults learn but there are two processes of learning which have been of great debate for many years. Observational learning and cognitive learning have been theories which many great philosophers have been researching extensively. Both theories provide valid points and both can be applied to our world today. The question is do I believe in them and can they somehow be integrated? I believe that learning is observable yet I also recognize that there are many other factors to consider when discussing this issue. First I believe that being observant means that we focus and pay attention to what we are observing. If you want to learn anything, it is critical to pay attention. Anything that may come in the way of your attention is going to decrease your learning, including observational learning. Second I believe that each individual's environment, culture, and family greatly affect how someone responds to what they have observed. We can look at this topic from a simplistic point of view and use the example of a child observing someone throw...

Canada’s Involvement in the Vietnam War Essay

The bloody Vietnam War of the 1950’s was fought by the brave American troops with the help of the Canadian citizens. Though, sources claim that Canada had a limited amount of contribution in the war, facts state otherwise. The Vietnam War took place during the Cold War era where a military conflict had occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from November 1 1955 to April 30 1975. Canada became officially involved in the Vietnam conflict in 1954, as part of the International Commission for Supervision and Control in Vietnam. However, Canada did not post troops to Vietnam until 1973, in which Canadian troops remained under the United Nations banner to enforce the Paris Peace Accords. The War had persisted for more than nineteen years, five months, four weeks and one day. During the Cold War era, Canada remained associated with the main stream western powers. Many Canadians who truly wanted to fight in the War had served along the U. S Military. Canadians serving with the United States had occurred as far back as the Civil War. In addition, Canada was part of many organizations such as â€Å"N. A. T. O† (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) which guaranteed Canada would not partake in the Vietnam War. Even though people around the world contemplate that Canada had no contribution in the Vietnam War, various facts state that Canadians did have excessive amount of involvement towards the Vietnam War that was never taken into consideration. Throughout this essay, the reader will be able to grasp a general understanding of the ways in which the Canadians had part in The Vietnam War, regardless of what bias sources claim. To start with, Canada sent more than thirty thousand troops into the Vietnam War with the Americans – these troops volunteered and died there.

Buddhism& Religion

These were the lines the Buddha was believed to have said before he passed away at 80 years old (Boeree, 1999) after founding a way of thinking that would become one of the world’s biggest religions. Prince Siddhartha had everything in life: a loving family and riches beyond imagining. However, in spite of such abundance, Siddhartha had a lingering discontent. As Hesse (trans. Rosner, 1971) wrote in is his book, â€Å"†¦He still lacked all joy in his heart. Dreams and restless thoughts came into his mind†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Such restlessness compelled him to leave the comforts and safety of his kingdom to search for life’s purpose.Thus began Prince Siddhartha’s journey to enlightenment. After achieving the awakening that he desired, Siddhartha called himself Buddha or the Enlightened One, whose teachings became the foundations of Buddhism. WHAT I LIKE ABOUT BUDDHISM I can honestly say that my previous knowledge of Buddhism was limited to what I witnessed in the m usical The King and I, which isn’t much if you have seen it. So reading about this particular religion was really fascinating and an eye-opener as well. As I learned more about Buddhism, I realized it is not an organized religion; more of a way of thinking.As Keown (1996) once said, â€Å"Problems of the kind just mentioned confront us as soon as we try to define what Buddhism is. Is it a religion? A philosophy? A way of life? A code of ethics? It is not easy to classify Buddhism as any of these things, and it challenges us to rethink some of these categories. † Indeed, it is not for us to classify or label Buddhism, or any other philosophy for that matter. I suppose it should just be taken for the way it is and for the ideas that is espouses. In Buddhism, you are welcome to come and leave as you wish.The path of Buddha is a simple, ethical life, and awareness of thoughts and actions, that leads to wisdom and understanding. Buddhists pay respect to Buddha not to worshi p him; but to thank him for showing them the path to enlightenment. A major aspect of Buddhism is meditation. Buddhists believe that by going into your own thoughts, you cleanse and purify your soul. Meditation, while relaxing the body, sharply focuses the mind, thus enabling us to purge negative energy and achieve clarity of thought. Meditation is a keystone in Buddhism; without which one cannot achieve the awakening that they are looking for.For Buddhists the mediation technique can calm them, but it does not lead entirely away from all of our sufferings. There are a number of different approaches to Buddhism meditation. Meditation as keystone of meditation came from the fact that Buddha himself attained enlightenment during a long period of mediation. The first approach is samatha or calm meditation. The idea here is to calm the body and mind and bring one’s self into a state of perfect concentration. To attain this, breathing is very important; there has to be consciousne ss of one’s breath as it drifts in and out of the body.To the Buddhists, concentrating this way leaves no room for disruptive mental thoughts, known as the five hindrances: sensual desire, ill-will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and work, and skeptical doubt. When all these disruptions have been removed, this kind of calm meditation leads to a blissful state known as jhanas. But regardless of the benefits that calm meditation offers, it does not provide a complete pathway to enlightenment. Many Buddhists merge the calm meditation with or insight meditation. This type of meditation is intended for developing within us awareness of the world as it really is.It asks us to be aware of what we are doing at the precise moment we are doing it. Some people call this process metacognition, or awareness of our awareness. I have been practicing meditation for some months now. And studying Buddhism, I am able to appreciate the process even more. It is amazing how I find so much peace ju st by closing my eyes and be aware of every breath that I take. I agree with the Buddhists, meditation definitely brings inner peace and contentment. It renews the spirit and gives me the strength to cope with life’s uncertainties.WHAT I DON’T LIKE ABOUT BUDDHISM It’s hard to think of something that I would like to change about Buddhism. It has withstood the test of time, and deserves respect for that. Religion, if Buddhism is one of them, is one of the things that must abide in this world. Buddhism must be constant, a stronghold for people who are looking for peace and meaning in their lives. Buddhism advocates non-violence and respect for all living creatures. The ultimate goal of a Buddhist is to reach a state of sustained self-enlightenment or Nirvana, which is liberation from the bonds of reincarnation.This can be achieved through constant meditation and consciousness of thought and action. Buddhists are fierce vegetarians and are known for their stark, sim ple lifestyles and pacifist beliefs. They welcome anyone who wants to espouse their ways and do not impose that you forsake your own religious beliefs. The Buddha said that it did not matter what a person’s status in the world was, or what their background or wealth or nationality might be. All were capable of enlightenment, and all were welcome into the Sangha or community of followers. (Boeree, 1999)If I were a leader of Buddhism, I will resolve to remain faithful to the spirit in which Buddhism has been founded. Perfection can lead to complacency. The very philosophy of Buddhism renders it imperfect because it is always striving to attain awakening and enlightenment. The desire to change and better ourselves is the impetus that will keep us searching in life and within ourselves. However, if I were to choose something I don not like about Buddhism, it would have to be their stubborn refusal to make a stand and fight for their way of life.This refusal to fight in defense of their own has been the cause of their oppression. In the highlands of Tibet and Nepal, where Buddhism has established an unbroken, traditional way of living, there has been an upheaval because neighboring countries have been trying to take over these majestic lands and rule them. I believe that Buddhism has earned the right to keep their way of living, and no country has the right to come in and take that away, all in the name of progress. And Buddhist, in defense of their right to keep their traditions and simple living should fight for it.Of course I understand that fighting goes against the very grain of Buddha’s teachings of non-violence. But if the espousal of non-violence threatens their very existence, and will change their way of life to the very core, then that justifies fighting by all means. By fighting, I don’t mean the aggressive kind, but the kind of fighting that one needs to do when there is a clear and present danger that threatens your territory and life. Everyone, regardless of creed or color has the right to defend himself.That is a basic human right that everyone should respect and protect. Indeed, there is room for righteous fighting; even in the non-violent world of Buddhism. REFERENCES: Boeree, G (1999). The Life of Siddhartha Gautama. Shippensburg University http://webspace. ship. edu/cgboer/siddhartha. html Keown, D (1996). Buddhism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. Oxford. Hesse, H (1971). Siddhartha. (H. Rosner, Trans). Bantam Books. (Original work published 1922). Hopfe L. M. & Woodward. M. R. (2007). Religions of the World. Pearson Education Inc. New Jersey.

10 Exploratory Essay Topics on the Nature of Synthesis

10 Exploratory Essay Topics on the Nature of Synthesis What is the Nature of Synthesis? How shall a student prepare to write an exploratory essay on this topic? If you’ve been given this assignment and are in need of some guidance, this introductory exposition will point you in the right direction. When discussing the term synthesis, it is necessary for the student to clarify which field of study the student is being asked to analyze. In the broadest sense, there are two types of synthesis: chemical synthesis, pertaining to physical and/or biochemical fields, and philosophical synthesis, pertaining to the field of philosophy. This guide addresses the nature of synthesis from the chemical standpoint, and these ten facts will assist the student by providing accurate information from which to form their essay. What is the definition of the term synthesis? Merriam-Webster’s dictionary offers three broad answers. First and most commonly, synthesis is defined as â€Å"the composition or combination of parts or elements so as to form a whole.† Secondly it can be defined as â€Å"the production of a substance by the union of chemical elements, groups, or simpler compounds or by the degradation of a complex compound.† Lastly, the term can refer to â€Å"the combining of often diverse conceptions into a coherent whole. In simpler terms, synthesis is the process of combining simple elements, typically organic, to form something completely new. What is synthesis used for? Chemical synthesis is part of the scientific process used in laboratories day in and day out all over the world. Chemists, scientists, physicians, and inventors in various industries rely on using chemical synthesis to study existing compounds and to create new products that are not found in nature. The process of synthesis also allows the production of certain desired products in large quantities in a controlled environment. What happens during synthesis? When two or more substances are combined, a chemical reaction occurs. The result is a â€Å"synthesis reaction,† also referred to as a â€Å"direct combination reaction,† and the resulting product is called a compound. Scientists often study and synthesize chemical compounds and elements from nature, gaining a better understanding of those compounds as a result. The opposite of a synthesis reaction is a â€Å"decomposition reaction,† in which a complex substance is broken down into its smaller parts. How does synthesis affect me directly? Synthesis takes place around the clock inside the human body. As we take in bread, meat, and vegetables, the body breaks them down and through synthesis turns the ingested elements into vitamins and nutrients needed to sustain life. Outside the body, synthesis can be viewed in the natural world all around us. If you see a rusted piece of metal sitting outside, it has come to be that way as the result of oxidation, a synthesis reaction that takes place when water comes into contact with metal to create the new compound of rust. What is a real-world example of synthesis? Let’s take a look at what many consider to be the most plentiful compound on the planet. When two hydrogen gas molecules are combined with a single molecule of oxygen gas, the resulting compound is two molecules of H20, commonly called water. Scientists in a lab can create the water compound by combining two simple elements. How is synthesis important in the world around me? Many common medications used today have come about as the result of a scientist using chemical synthesis. Chemists and physicians routinely extract simple elements from plant materials, and when certain elements are combined with others, powerful new drugs can be developed to fight such diseases as malaria or even cancer. Advancements in technology and the discovery of new forms of energy are also made possible by the science of synthesis. How is my daily life affected by synthesis? The smartphone in your pocket is the direct result of a myriad of inventors using synthesis in a lab to develop lithium ion batteries. The new blood pressure medication your grandmother takes is the result of doctors performing synthesis to discover safer, more effective drugs. Where did modern-day synthesis originate? Alchemists from ancient Greek and the Middle ages unknowingly took part in the study of chemical synthesis each time they created a new batch of wine or attempted to benefit from the opiates found in poppy seeds. True synthesis as a scientific field of study did not emerge until the 19th century. History gives the credit to a German chemist by the name of Friedrich Wà ¶hler, a pioneer in his field. His discovery in 1928 was, in fact, accidental, and came about as he was attempting to make one compound and was surprised by the unexpected creation of another. It wasn’t until the 1990’s that the study of chemical biology was formally recognized by the world’s scientific community. Are there hazards that can be connected to synthesis? There is a long list of elements and compounds that should never be mixed together in order to avoid unpleasant results. Chemists have discovered that synthesis of two unfriendly compounds can result in explosions, detonations, radical combustion, or the release of toxic or deadly gas. A real life example is the noxious cloud of fumes that result by mixing bleach with ammonia. Great care must be taken to avoid these dangerous and deadly combinations. What can we look forward to in the future of chemical synthesis? The invention of modern scientific tools has certainly helped the advancement of synthesis. As scientists continue to discover, isolate, and name new organic elements on the Periodic Table, new compounds are also being created by the chemical synthesis of those new elements. Some chemists indicate that the field of chemistry will be radically changed in the next century by the rise of â€Å"robo-chemists,† computers coded with artificial intelligence that can quickly synthesis any organic compound quickly and without error. A futuristic synthesis machine could, in effect, eliminate much of the human element. Ethicists debate the wisdom of utilizing such a machine, but many scientists agree that the advances obtained through it would transform the entire scientific industry by making exciting discoveries that may have taken a human scientist light years to achieve. This introductory guide can serve as a reference point for the student pursuing the topic in-depth. There is a vast array of additional information and research available regarding the nature of synthesis available online, at the bookstore, at your local library and most importantly in our 2 standalone accompanying guides on how to write on the nature of synthesis for an exploratory essay as well as our 20 topics on the subject hand in hand with a sample custom essay. References: Nicolaou, K.C., E.J. Sorensen, and N. Winsinnger. â€Å"The Art and Science of Organic and Natural Products Synthesis.† Journal of Chemical Education, 75, No. 10, October 1998. 10/29/2016 Retrieved from http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/ed075p1225 Davies, Huw M.L. â€Å"Expanding the art of synthesis.† Nature Chemistry Vol 1 October 2009 Retrieved from chemistry.illinois.edu/faculty/Davieshighlight.pdf â€Å"Chemical Synthesis.† Encyclopedia Brittanica. 10/29/2016 Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-synthesis Usselman, Melvyn C., Steven S. Zumdahl, Richard O.C. Norman, and Carl R. Noller, â€Å"Chemical Compound.† Encyclopedia Brittanica 10/29/2016 Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-compound/Binary-molecular-covalent-compounds#ref615757 Poss, Andrew. â€Å"Chemical Synthesis.† 10/29/2016 Retrieved from http://science.jrank.org/pages/6676/Synthesis-Chemical.html Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D, â€Å"Synthesis Reactions and Examples.† About 10/29/2016 Retrieved from http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemicalreactions/a/Synthesis-Reactions.htm Boley, Allison. â€Å"Examples of Chemical Synthesis† 10/29/2016 Retrieved from http://classroom.synonym.com/examples-chemical-synthesis-15633.html Granger, Jill. â€Å"H20 The Mystery, Art, and Science of Water.† 10/29/2016 Retrieved from http://witcombe.sbc.edu/water/chemistryelectrolysis.html Gillaspy, Rebecca. â€Å"Biochemical Reactions: Synthesis and Decomposition.† Transcript, Chapter 3, Lesson 1. 10/29/2016 Retrieved from http://study.com/academy/lesson/biochemical-reactions-synthesis-and-decomposition.html Fernelius, W. Conard. â€Å"An Ammonia World.† Journal of Chemical Education 1931 8(1) p 55. 10/29/2016 Retrieved from http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed008p55?journalCode=jceda8 Peplow, Mark. â€Å"Organic synthesis: The robo-chemist.† Nature Volume 512, Issue 7512, August 7, 2014. 10/29/2016 Retrieved from nature.com/news/organic-synthesis-the-robo-chemist-1.15661

Forsaken Fields essays

Forsaken Fields essays Forsaken Fields gave a lot history on Japanese-Americans from before, during and after World War II. The Japanese-Americans had the Alien Land Law which was put in force before the war. This law prohibited the Japanese who just arrived from Japan from becoming citizens which enabled them from owning land. The Japanese-Americans were smart and they found loopholes in this law. If you are born in America you are an American citizen, so Japanese would purchase there land in there children name who were American citizens. The Alien Land Law was just the start of the Japanese- Americans trouble in America. They came to America for the American dream, but all they got was hostility and anger. People want to come to America to work hard, and earn a life for them self and there family. I think most people who were born and raised in America take for granted the freedom we have. Americans are generally lazy people. Americans dont see that same freedom, and the American dream that foreigners visualize. I think it is sad that these Japanese- Americans came so far in search of a great place, and were treated so poorly. Even before the War; Japanese-Americans had a hard time finding someone who would sell them land, or equipment to run the land. A lot of Americans were concerned that Japanese were going to make more money then them ,or run better crops. Japanese-Americans did make good money enough to finance there families. By 1910 Japanese-Americans owned numerous crops like potatoes, rice, strawberries. Japanese- Americans had a great respect for land. They even found many new ways to aline crops to utilize the most space possible. They thought their children all about farming, and gave them knowledge of all the different types of plants. Most children before the war would look forward to growing up and becoming a farmer like there parents. During World War II Japanese were thought...

Cómo preparar entrevista remoción condiciones greencard

Cà ³mo preparar entrevista remocià ³n condiciones greencard La entrevista para la remocià ³n de las condiciones de la tarjeta de residencia es un requisito fundamental para convertir en definitiva la green card provisional del cà ³nyuge de un ciudadano estadounidense. Cabe destacar que dicha entrevista solo es necesaria en aquellos casos en los que el migrante recibià ³ la tarjeta de residencia con carcter condicional porque se le aprobà ³ cuando llevaba casado con el ciudadano americano menos de 2 aà ±os.   Esta residencia tambià ©n se conoce con el nombre de CR-1. En otras palabras, esto quiere decir que si los cà ³nyuges ya llevaban 2 aà ±os de casados cuando el esposo/o extranjero recibià ³ la residencia, dicha green card fue ya definitiva y no es necesario hacer este trmite. Entrevista remocià ³n condiciones de green card Solo los cà ³nyuges de ciudadanos estadounidenses que recibieron su green card antes de cumplir dos aà ±os de casados deben solicitar la remocià ³n de condiciones para convertir su tarjeta de residencia en definitiva.La entrevista a los cà ³nyuges por parte de un oficial migratorio es una pieza fundamental en el proceso de remocià ³n de dichas condiciones. La finalidad es convencer al oficial de que se trata de un matrimonio real y no de uno de conveniencia por los papeles.Si la pareja ya se ha divorciado o se ha separado las opciones para que el cà ³nyuge extranjero obtenga la green card definitiva se reducen notablemente, pero hay algunas posibilidades.  ¿Cà ³mo se inicia la remocià ³n de las condiciones de la green card? Debe solicitarse la remocià ³n de las condiciones 90 dà ­as antes de que expire la green card condicional, que tiene fecha de expiracià ³n de dos aà ±os a contar desde la fecha de su aprobacià ³n. Para ello el trmite se inicia completando la planilla I-751. Durante este proceso una de las piezas fundamentales es la entrevista ante un oficial migratorio y a la que deben acudir ambos cà ³nyuges.  ¿Quà © se puede hacer si la fecha de la cita para la entrevista resulta inconveniente? En determinadas circunstancias, Inmigracià ³n puede admitir un cambio en la fecha. Estas son las reglas sobre cà ³mo solicitarlo si no se puede acudir a la cita con el USCIS.  ¿Cunto dura la entrevista para la tarjeta de residencia por matrimonio? La entrevista por parte de un oficial de inmigracià ³n al matrimonio formado por un ciudadano/a americano/a y su esposo o mujer extranjero dura, de media, de diez a quince minutos. Se debe responder de manera concisa a las preguntas. Es altamente recomendable no hablar de asuntos sobre los que no se ha preguntado, entre otras cosas, para evitar problemas por hablar en exceso. Si el oficial  de inmigracià ³n necesita una aclaracià ³n o ms datos, asà ­ lo dir.  ¿Hay algà ºn tipo de preguntas estndar para la entrevista para la green card por matrimonio? En realidad, no existe un listado de preguntas estndar, aunque siempre se pregunta por la fecha de la à ºltima entrada a Estados Unidos por parte del cà ³nyuge extranjero. Asimismo, son tà ­picas las preguntas sobre dà ³nde se conocieron, el nombre de los hermanos de ambos y ciertas cosas personales, sin entrar en la intimidad de la pareja ni tampoco asuntos rebuscados. Tambià ©n pueden preguntar sobre el hogar familiar, las familias respectivas, etc. Este es un ejemplo de 65 preguntas que pueden hacer en la entrevista, pero el oficial migratorio puede preguntar cualquier cosa que estime pertinente y que le sirva para determinar si se trata de un matrimonio de buena fe.  ¿Quà © documentacià ³n debe llevarse a la entrevista? Para ingresar al edificio donde tendr lugar la entrevista es necesario llevar un I.D. oficial emitido por el gobierno. En el caso del ciudadano estadounidense puede ser la licencia de manejar, pasaporte, identificacià ³n militar, etc. En el caso del cà ³nyuge extranjero se admite su pasaporte, aunque està © expirado. Adems, es necesario llevar el original de toda la documentacià ³n de la que se envià ³ fotocopia cuando se realizà ³ la aplicacià ³n. El fin es que el oficial de inmigracià ³n pueda comparar el original con la copia. Asimismo, debe llevarse original y fotocopia)de documentos que no existà ­an en el momento en el que se envià ³ la solicitud de tarjeta de residencia para el cà ³nyuge extranjero. Por ejemplo, ya que se trata de un matrimonio, puede suceder que hayan sido padres de un nià ±o o una nià ±a despuà ©s de la solicitud. Entonces debe llevarse copia oficial del acta de nacimiento y fotocopia de la misma. Tambià ©n deben llevarse al dà ­a la documentacià ³n sobre pago de impuestos, ingresos, etc. Asimismo, llevar fotocopias en color de las fotografà ­as de la pareja colocadas en grupos de dos o tres en una misma hoja, seà ±alando los nombres de los que aparecen en las mismas, fecha en la que fueron tomadas y lugar. Es muy recomendable que alguna de ellas tenga como objeto reuniones familiares. Se puede llevar el lbum de bodas, pero no hay que fotocopiarlo.  ¿Quà © puede suceder tras la entrevista? Es posible que se notifique justo despuà ©s de la entrevista que ha tenido lugar la remocià ³n de ls condiciones, pero es ms comà ºn es que el oficial de inmigracià ³n decida notificar por correo. Tambià ©n puede ocurrir que se solicite ms documentacià ³n. En este caso entregar a la pareja una hoja con el listado de documentos que faltan y el plazo mximo para enviarlos. Para evitar problemas es recomendable enviarlos por correo certificado en la que quede constancia de la fecha. Y por supuesto que el oficial de inmigracià ³n puede negar la peticià ³n de la tarjeta de residencia porque cree que puede tratarse de un fraude, en otras palabras, un matrimonio falso para conseguir los papeles. En este caso, puede haber consecuencias legales, adems de no obtener la green card.  ¿Quà © sucede cuando la pareja se separa antes de la entrevista? Por razones varias, el matrimonio puede separarse o divorciarse antes de que la tarjeta de residencia se convierta en definitiva. En la mayorà ­a de los casos eso significar que el migrante se quedar sin la tarjeta de residencia y deber abandonar Estados Unidos a menos que cuenta con otra cobertura legal que le permita mantener un estatus migratorio legal en el paà ­s. Sin embargo, cabe destacar que en determinadas ocasiones hay opciones para el cà ³nyuge extranjero para que pueda obtener una tarjeta de residencia definitiva. a pesar del divorcio, si se cumplen una serie de requisitos. A tener en cuenta: ventajas e inconvenientes de matrimonio con ciudadano Los cà ³nyuges de ciudadanos americanos pueden solicitar la ciudadanà ­a por naturalizacià ³n a los tres aà ±os de convertirse en residentes permanentes. A diferencia de lo que ocurre con el resto de los inmigrantes, que deben esperar cinco aà ±os. Por otro lado, casarse con un estadounidense no garantiza ni parar un procedimiento de deportacià ³n ni que se pueda sacar  la green card. La situacià ³n es complicada en los casos en los que el cà ³nyuge extranjero ingresà ³ a EE.UU. cruzando ilegalmente la frontera. Tambià ©n tienen un problema serio los migrantes que han sido condenados por alguna felonà ­a. En estos casos, lo recomendable es asesorarse con un buen abogado migratorio y ver si se podrà ­a calificar para un perdà ³n provisional o, si no es posible, cules son las posibles opciones. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

Does Kant Adequatly Address the Problems Evident in the Controversy Essay

Does Kant Adequatly Address the Problems Evident in the Controversy between Empiricism and Rationalism - Essay Example According to Kant, the difference (dispute) that emerges between rationalism and empiricism is the level in which we are dependent on sense experience in order for us to gain and acquire knowledge. Rationalists claim that, very independent we gain knowledge and ideas (Kenny 45-46). This independent way of gaining concepts as it is own sense experience. Empiricists claim on the other side that sense experience is the final source of all our knowledge and ideals. When empiricists say that we are only able to access appearances, they are not saying that we only have access to illusory representations. To some level denying some confidence in their explanations, in this case, they ought to have been clear on this matter. Nonetheless, for Kant, appearances can, and in fact do, provide us with the ground for knowledge on facts and ideas (Kenny 48). To him the mind is the source of experience and knowledge, Descartes (1988). This is the concept, according to Kant, the concept of pure of cat egories. This is particularly clear in the sense that the mind makes contributions to experiences (Descartes 123). The mind plays a significant role and imposes on experience certain categories that make knowledge possible. In this case when Kant says that we cannot know the thing in itself he does not only mean that reality is inaccessible but also that we cannot experience anything outside in the way human mind operates Ann (1970). And from this explanation it is not a wrong concept, â€Å"but it justifies how human beings acquire knowledge† (Anne 90). Now, we have a look science and advancements in knowledge, it is evident that we have knowledge; Kant would never have denied it. Rationalist, in real sense have developed the argument in two ways. They say that there are circumstances when the content embodied in knowledge outstrips the information that can be provided in the real life experience. Also, they have build in some way, that reason in some form provides informati on and knowledge to the world. Empiricists, in this case provide some additional information of knowledge thought about the world (Kenny 50). Empiricists provide a sum up of lines and levels of thought. In that case they establish on accounts of how learning and experience provides on the information that rationalist provide, which according to Kant we have so far. According to Kant Empiricists will in most cases opt for skepticism as a lope to rationalism, Ann (1970). The say that if then experience cannot provide concepts or knowledge the rationalist cite, they then in that case do not have. In that case according to Kant, â€Å"empiricists attack the rationalists on accounts of how reason is a source of concepts and knowledge†. According to Kant, rationalist focus on what they call necessary truth. By this they articulate that some things are necessary true. Kant points that the simplest form of truth is the self-evident truth. In that regard, Kant says, that you even do n ot have to think. He illustrates that for instance as a simple calculation; one plus one, the answer is two Descartes (1988). This to him you do not have through the world to necessarily count this in order to prove it. Kant says that this is something you ought to believe that one plus one, the answer is two (Descartes 124). One of the criticisms that empiricists would set-forward is that, one plus one is two, is a mere trivial. It is tautological, suggesting it is true, certain, but not because it is not self

Analysis and Arguement on Britney Spears Facebook Page Research Paper

Analysis and Arguement on Britney Spears Facebook Page - Research Paper Example Within this context, Britney Spears’ image as a globally marketed cultural icon and her facebook page represent the same thing, a carefully crafted product. To be specific, Britney Spears’ facebook page does not surpass her image as a popular culture icon. Instead, her facebook page is carefully crafted to communicate with her fans/audience. Thesis statement: The analysis and argument on the statement(s) made by Britney Spears about herself to her audience and her carefully constructed facebook page proves that both the statement(s) and facebook page reinforces her public image as a popular culture icon. Most of the public figures who communicate with the audience make use of the theory put forth by Aristotle in his work ‘On Rhetoric’. To be specific, the theory of rhetoric consists of the essential qualities that a public figure should have to gain social acceptance. For instance, ethos consists of the trustworthiness of an individual (say, the speaker), p athos consists of the ability of and individual to create emotional attachment with the listeners and logos consists of the ability of the speaker (say, logical arguments) to communicate with listeners. Within this context, Britney Spears’ statements about herself to the audience is interconnected with logos, she is ready to lose her individuality to satisfy her fans. To be specific, Britney Spears’ status as a cultural icon hinders her from behaving like a mature person because she needs to present herself as a myth. So, one can see that Britney Spears’ statements on trustworthiness or loyalty towards oneself is interconnected with ethos. Besides, Britney Spears’ statements and opinions on other female singers (Madonna and Janet Jackson) prove that she is able to create her own space within the context of popular music. Britney’s commitment to music, especially singing and stage presence helped her to create emotional attachment with her audience. This emotional attachment is an important element of rhetoric, i.e., pathos. One can easily identify that Britney Spears’ emotional attachment with her audience is one of the factors behind her success as a popular culture icon. From a different angle of view, Britney Spears’ public identity as a celebrity does not hinder her personal life. Christopher R. Smit stated that â€Å"In late 2001 Britney’s image/marketing changed bearing in mind that much of her audience had grown up in the meantime† (5). To be specific, her ability to communicate (say, with logical arguments) with the public helps her to divide her public and personal domains into two distinct areas. For instance, Britney Spears is an ordinary individual in her private life. Within this context, her logical arguments/opinions on defining herself, childhood dream to become a singer, harsh media reviews, sexuality, physical limitations, inspiration etc prove that the same is interconnected with logos. B. Argument: How does the construction of her page reveal the statements? Britney Spears’ facebook page reveals her statements because she made use of unique techniques to communicate with the subscribers. For instance, Britney Spears’ facebook page layout is simple and attractive to the subscribers. Within this context, family photos, especially with her family members and friends are important. Besides, her facebook page helps the subscribers to know more about her as an individual, not as a myth. One can see that Br

Juvenile Justice Module 8 Online Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Juvenile Justice Module 8 Online - Essay Example In juvenile justice system parents, social workers and probation officers are involved in the process to achieve positive results and avoid any further crimes by children. The juvenile probation is the centre of juvenile justice system. Probation is the tool used by juvenile justice agencies. It is an informal monitoring of youth and avoiding their involvement in serious crimes. The main responsibility of juvenile probation is safety and protection of public from crimes. The juvenile probation practices must be mission-oriented, performance based and result-oriented. Many probation skills and approaches are used. In this probation practice, the offenders are supervised in their schools. This practice is useful in the sense that the children spend the majority of their time in school. The probation officer finds himself in the position of better monitoring of the juvenile offenders. In this practice he has more contact with the youth and able to see behavior of the offender with his fellows. This practice also will help the youth to become more attentive in school making a good student. A study revealed that school based probation results in better academic performance, less crimes and increase in school attendance. This study was carried on 75 randomly selected offenders. The most important goal of the juvenile justice system is to change the young people. The purpose of this practice is to make the offenders good citizens following laws and regulations. The probation officers play an important role in rehabilitation of the youth. For this purpose the probation officers help in develop the working skills and learning skills. The skills which are needed to make peaceful and useful citizens. The offenders also need to change the way they think and make decisions. Their way of thinking is changed by cognitive interventions. The need is assessed and goals are set accordingly and then the skill building programs are made. It is important for the offenders to

Arctic Plankton Bloom Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Arctic Plankton Bloom - Assignment Example When a scientist says that productivity is a rate, he/she means that it is the rate at which organic matter is produced (National Geographic, n.d.). More clearly, in a scientific perspective, biological productivity is the annual rate of biomass production expressed in tons per hectare per year. Before discussing the factors that influence productivity in various ocean environments like the surf zone, mid-ocean and the deep abyss, it is important to understand the fact that oceans account for only one-third of Earth’s productivity although they cover roughly two-third of the Earth’s surface area. In oceans, coastal regions are characterized with the greatest net primary production. Thorne-Miller (1999) states that diversity of species in surf zone is low but the species that remain in this ocean environment is unusually productive, making the surf zone one of the most productive marine habitats. Wave action is a major factor that influences productivity in the surf zone indirectly. It supplies â€Å"nutrients and suspended food particles to plants and animals attached to the rock† (p. 68). In addition, the wave action keeps seaweeds wet in times of low tide, leading to a favorable photosynthesis rate during the period of greatest light intensity. Thorne -Miller also says that seaweeds and invertebrates living in the surf zone have the capability to adapt to the challenging physical conditions there (p.68). In the words of Foulger (2011), the major factors that determine productivity in mid-oceans include the local plate boundary configuration, temperature, and source composition such as volatiles. Productivity is notably improved by enhanced source fertility. A high fertile source will be characterized with a lower solidus, and this in turn would yield a higher level melting at a given temperature resulting in the thickening of the oceanic crust (p.87). Tyler (2003)

The Culture of Gift and Bribe in Business Research Paper - 1

The Culture of Gift and Bribe in Business - Research Paper Example There has been increasing calls for managers to ensure that they keep to the code of ethics in their work. As the leader of the organizations, managers are given special duty of looking at the needs of the organization in the sense that they have to take care of all the activities of the organization. Therefore they are expected to lead by example and show others where they are supposed to take the organization. The duties of a manager have been increasing in the recent past to include the factor of ensuring that there is fairness in business practice. One of the most recent ethical controversies that have engulfed the business world has been the issue of culture giving of gift and bribes. It has been shown that the culture of giving bribes and gifts has become one of the most commonly practiced business practice. The debate on whether gifts and bribes in business are justified or not is been centered on several issues. This has been dictated by the cultural practices of different communities in the world. Let us look closely at the concept of giving of bribes and gifts in business. (Iniobong 2007, p. 4) In the operation of the business, a manager is likely to come into contact with many people. These people are of diverse cultural practice and have different values that are attached to the cultural practices. This has become a dilemma in the modern market which has been dictated by the increasing rate of globalization which has been marked by the increased movement of people and increased interaction as well. The culture of gifts and bribes is taken differently according to a different society. For example, the culture of giving gifts is very common in China and from time to time people will give different gifts in different occasion. This is also extended to the business world and is not limited to the social life of the people. Reeling from a socialist economy, Chinese have not been fully embraced by the capitalist world and there is still a sense of community or togetherness that usually characterizes these regimes. On the other hand the culture of giving gifts in America is very rare. In the western world gift are only given in special occasion. Therefore they are limited to the social life of the people and in the business world they are only limited to the end year party and usually meant to raise the morale of the employees. Therefore when the Chinese businesses come to America, they come with their gift-giving culture. On the other hand when the American business goes to China they take with them limited gift-giving culture. This has been a source of conflict for a long time now for businesses operating under the above mentioned condition. (Scott 2005, p.2) But in the business world it is the intention of giving that gift that matter. Though you may give someone a gift with good intention they may receive the gift with another intention rather than that one that you meant. Therefore there has been a notion that these gifts are meant to bribe the one receiving them in order to grant some favor. In the business context, this has become a major issue that has brought about a ranging debate. It has been seen that there has been increased gift giving especially between the public official who is in power and the business manager who seek to have favor in the business process.  

English Hmework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

English Hmework - Essay Example However, she does not state what a role model is, but we can suggest that a role model might not have a hero’s characteristics. Based on Singer’s views, role models are close to us, and they need to learn something from the heroes. (COLL) In addition, Singer believes we do not have as many heroes today as in the past. Nowadays, heroes are difficult to find. On the other hand, it is not hard to have a role model. Reading ‘Heroes and Role Models’ made me to reflect on my life and thought that my father had helped me grow as an individual. Father is the best example of what a hard worker is. (COLL#2) He told me that he started his business when he was 18 years. He took this step because his family was poor at that time, and he wanted to make life much better by working hard. He did what he thought would help him make money. He worked harder than others as a result his outcome was better. Furthermore, he has had many different jobs. Sometimes he did many jobs o n the same day. For example, in the morning he could go to his company that manufactured boxes and then dealt with the daily routine afterwards. After completing his work, he could go selling a box lunch on the roadside. (PART) During the afternoon, he could send goods. Moreover, he looked for a part-time job that he could do after dinner, in order to make more income. Because of the hard work, father’s family financial situation became much better than before. I have emulated my father by working hard. He worked hard, in order to provide for us. I have made some tremendous improvements in class in the past three semesters. In this semester, I am taking 21 units and I expect to do well by working hard. The fact that I am not a smart girl makes hard work very important. Staying at school to study is my priority because of the conducive learning environment. Making it to a top university will be a dream come true. Hard work is the

The Culture of Gift and Bribe in Business Research Paper - 1

The Culture of Gift and Bribe in Business - Research Paper Example There has been increasing calls for managers to ensure that they keep to the code of ethics in their work. As the leader of the organizations, managers are given special duty of looking at the needs of the organization in the sense that they have to take care of all the activities of the organization. Therefore they are expected to lead by example and show others where they are supposed to take the organization. The duties of a manager have been increasing in the recent past to include the factor of ensuring that there is fairness in business practice. One of the most recent ethical controversies that have engulfed the business world has been the issue of culture giving of gift and bribes. It has been shown that the culture of giving bribes and gifts has become one of the most commonly practiced business practice. The debate on whether gifts and bribes in business are justified or not is been centered on several issues. This has been dictated by the cultural practices of different communities in the world. Let us look closely at the concept of giving of bribes and gifts in business. (Iniobong 2007, p. 4) In the operation of the business, a manager is likely to come into contact with many people. These people are of diverse cultural practice and have different values that are attached to the cultural practices. This has become a dilemma in the modern market which has been dictated by the increasing rate of globalization which has been marked by the increased movement of people and increased interaction as well. The culture of gifts and bribes is taken differently according to a different society. For example, the culture of giving gifts is very common in China and from time to time people will give different gifts in different occasion. This is also extended to the business world and is not limited to the social life of the people. Reeling from a socialist economy, Chinese have not been fully embraced by the capitalist world and there is still a sense of community or togetherness that usually characterizes these regimes. On the other hand the culture of giving gifts in America is very rare. In the western world gift are only given in special occasion. Therefore they are limited to the social life of the people and in the business world they are only limited to the end year party and usually meant to raise the morale of the employees. Therefore when the Chinese businesses come to America, they come with their gift-giving culture. On the other hand when the American business goes to China they take with them limited gift-giving culture. This has been a source of conflict for a long time now for businesses operating under the above mentioned condition. (Scott 2005, p.2) But in the business world it is the intention of giving that gift that matter. Though you may give someone a gift with good intention they may receive the gift with another intention rather than that one that you meant. Therefore there has been a notion that these gifts are meant to bribe the one receiving them in order to grant some favor. In the business context, this has become a major issue that has brought about a ranging debate. It has been seen that there has been increased gift giving especially between the public official who is in power and the business manager who seek to have favor in the business process.  

Business Law Essay Example for Free

Business Law Essay You are to work on this assignment alone without assistance from others; however, you may use your text, class lectures and your notes in completing the assignment. Points earned from this assignment will be added to your total point score for the semester. (See the course syllabus for the course grading scale.) Due Date Mon., Nov. 12th: This is an out-of-class assignment and is to be turned in no later than the beginning of class on the due date. The Assignment: Read the news articles and the federal regulations that follow. Answer the questions about potential claims. Please note: †¢ Your answers are to be marked on the Assignment. Mark clearly to show which answer you have selected. †¢ Write your name on the Assignment Sheet. Submit a hard copy of the entire Assignment Sheet. NTSB releases details on Lake Butler crash No charges have been filed against bus driver, although a criminal investigation continues. By ASSOCIATED PRESS Published February 3, 2006 LAKE BUTLER, FLORIDA – The truck driver who plowed into a car at a school bus stop last week killing seven children had been awake for 34 hours, except for a short nap, an investigator with the National Transportation Safety Board said Friday. David Rayburn, the lead NTSB investigator for the Lake Butler crash, said the 31-year-old truck driver, Alvin Wilkerson, was refusing to talk to investigators about the accident. Rayburn and Florida Highway Patrol Lt. Bill Leeper refused to release the name of Wilkerson’s attorney. Calls to Crete Carrier Corp., the Lincoln, Nebraska, trucking company Wilkerson drove for, were not immediately returned. Blood tests showed he had not been using alcohol or drugs, Leeper said. Wilkerson was not using his cell phone at the time of the accident. No charges have been filed against Wilkerson, although a criminal investigation continues. Rayburn said driver fatigue was one of main factors being looked into as the cause of the crash. â€Å"He was driving quite a bit during those 34 hours, probably too much,† Rayburn said, adding that Wilkerson was making deliveries and loading and unloading his truck. At the time of the crash, Wilkerson was driving a load of bottled water from High Springs to Jacksonville, a trip of about 85 miles. The NTSB, using an identical school bus and truck, determined the school bus should have been visible for about 3,000 feet (more than half a mile) and there was some light skid marks before hitting the car and pushing it into the school bus. The car burst into flames, killing all seven children, and forcing it under the school bus, carrying nine children. Two children from the bus remain at Shands hospital in Gainesvile in serious condition. When asked when Wilkerson saw the bus, Rayburn said, â€Å"I don’t know that he did.† Rayburn said both the bus driver and the truck driver had valid commercial licenses. He noted that the driver of the car, Nikki Mann, was only 15, and had only a learner’s permit. She was talking on her cell phone when the truck hit the back of her car. Sheriff Jerry Whitehead said the crash was not Nikki Mann’s fault. â€Å"Accidents happen. This was a tragedy. I don’t believe she was at all at fault. The truck plowed into them and killed them.† Rayburn said there were no mechanical problems with any of the vehicles involved and a recorder on the truck did not show the impact. Investigators don’t know if a dog riding in Wilkerson’s truck played any part in the collision. Rayburn said he investigated a 2004 crash in which a Crete Carrier driver had been driving excessive hours. That incident involved a multi-car pile-up on the Indiana toll road near Chicago resulting in two fatalities, including the Crete driver. NTSB records show Crete has been cited fourteen times in the last six years for driver hour violations. This tiny Union City town has been mourning since the crash last week. On Monday, the five children of Terry and Barbara Mann were buried after a service at the First Christian Church in Lake Butler. They were Nikki, 15, and adopted children Elizabeth, 15, Johnny, 13, Heaven, 3, and 20-month-old Anthony. Their cousins, twins Ashley and Amanda Finn, 13, were buried Wednesday next to the body of William Edwin Scott, 70, the grandfather of the seven children, who died of a heart attack after hearing about the accident. Fatal Accident Driver Has Long Legal History Investigators are still piecing together why an 18-wheeler slammed into the back of a car and school bus in Lake Butler yesterday, causing seven children to die. The truck that was involved in the accident was owned and operated by Crete Carrier Corp. It’s a trucking company that has a pretty good reputation for safety nationwide. But the driver who was behind the wheel had anything but that. The WESH 2 I-Team discovered that he has a long history of problems with the law. According to driving records obtained by the I-Team, Alvin Wilkerson has been cited for eight traffic violations since 1995, including two speeding tickets and two seat belt violations. He’s also been cited twice for driving with a suspended or revoked license and twice more for operating a motor vehicle in an unsafe condition. Wilkerson, age 31, was driving for Crete Carrier Corp., which is headquartered in Lincoln, Neb. Crete employs 5,400 drivers operating 5,100 tractor-trailers around the country. According to Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration records, Crete carries a satisfactory safety rating. Even so, the I-Team discovered that in the last two years, Crete drivers have been involved in 482 crashes and 20 of those ended in fatalities. In Florida, transportation officials conducted 259 inspections of Crete trucks and drivers in the last two years alone and found 111 violations. Eight of those violations were so serious that inspectors immediately forced the trucks out of service and off the road. WESH 2 News asked Crete officials why they would hire someone with Wilkerson’s driving record, but they did not respond. A Florida Highway Patrol investigation of the accident continues. An investigator said they are checking on the truck’s systems. He said there was no indication that the truck’s brakes failed, but it appears the truck made no effort to stop before it slammed into that car full of children. Seven children, all related, perished in the crash when the car burst into flames. Their bodies were charred beyond recognition. Eight children on the school bus and the driver were transported to Shands HealthCare hospitals. Three of the children are reported in critical condition. Alvin Wilkerson suffered minor injuries and is reportedly at home.

Processes of Communication

Processes of Communication We shall study the process and elements of communication. This will: Describe the process of communication Explain the elements of communication Describe the importance of communication process in our everyday life Introduction Communication is a process of sharing of ideas, facts, opinions and the manner by which receiver of the message shares meanings and understanding with another. The objective of any communication process is to send a set of knowledge, in the form of signs, words or visuals, to a specific destination. However, there are certain parameters which are responsible for this entire process. This lesson will focus on those essential factors which make communication process successful. Process of Communication Communication is a process that uses a set of media to transmit ideas, facts, and feelings from one person to another. For thousands of years messages were communicated through spoken voice, when the sender and the receiver were in face-to-face situation. Even today in India, oral communication seems to be a part of majority population. In face-to-face communication sender gets an immediate feedback. He then easily knows about the impact, further needs or demands of the receiver immediately. In this type of communication, the process remains limited to the sender and the receiver, where in, the channel is the spoken language. Let us take another example of a teacher teaching in a class. The teacher is using various combinations of basic forms of communication- spoken, written and visual. In the lecture, the teacher uses a black board or shows the chart. He also combines written words with spoken words. In this process, the sender becomes the teacher, the receiver becomes the students, and the channel becomes the audio-visual mode of teaching. The sender of the message selects when and what to communicate and also decides an appropriate medium for its transmission. The receiver takes the message, interprets, perceives and responds to it. The entire chain here becomes the communication process. As a process, it is routine and continues forever. Every time a person transmits the facts, ideas, opinions or feelings, another person responds in turn communicating facts, ideas, feelings or attitudes. It is a never ending process which is cyclic in nature. According to Wilbur Schramm, communication requires three things: The source The message The destination The source may be an individual speaking, nodding, gesturing or writing. The message may be in the form of sound-waves in the air, or a wave of the hand or a written letter etc. The important thing is that it should be conveyed clearly so that the receiver can interpret it easily. The destination may be an individual who is listening, watching or reading the message or it may be a group of people listening to a lecture or watching a film. Harold Lasswell suggested a convenient method of describing the process of communication. Answering the following questions holds the key to understand the act of communication. The questions are- Who? Says what? In which channel? To whom? With what effect? Suppose two persons A and B are talking on telephone. Person A:Â  Hello, how are you? Person B:Â  I am fine, thank you. How are you? When are you visiting us? Person A:Â  I am fine too. I am coming tomorrow at 6 p.m. to your place. Person B:Â  Shall I pick you up from the airport? Person A:No thanks dear, I will reach myself. Person B:Â  All right, I will wait for you. In the above conversation, ‘Person A’ initiates the discussion then he is the source. ‘Who’ therefore means communicator or the source. ‘Person A’ is communicating to ‘Person B’. ‘Person B’ is the destination or ‘whom’. If the discussion is on phone then telephone is the channel used. Whatever ‘Person A’ is conveying to ‘Person B’ becomes the message. When ‘Person B’ responds to the message it is the feedback. Let’s see the Lasswell model once again: According to David K. Berlo, the whole sequence of communicating or the communication process involves six steps. The source or the initiator of the message encodes his thoughts, ideas, desires, objectives, and a purpose for communication, which is translated into a signs, symbols or code or a language. This is performed by the encoder who is responsible of taking the ideas of the source and putting them in a code, expressing the source’s purpose in a form of a message. The receiver is the target of any communication. The receiver decodes what is being communicated to him by the sender. He interprets the message and reacts accordingly. Thus, there are a few imperative components of communication which are the unchanging and dynamic essentials. Communication bridges the gap between two or more persons (sender and receiver) through producing and receiving messages which have meaning for both. How does communication take place? Encodes Decodes Sender2. Message 3. Channel4. Receiver Decodes Encodes 6. Feedback Sender of the message, first of all conceives the message in his mind and he encodes it in symbol, painting, music etc. The message thus encoded is transmitted to the receiver through a channel. The channel can be direct face-to-face-talk, telephonic conversation or through letters etc. The receiver of the message decodes it and after understanding it gives a proper response to it. If the response goes back to the sender then it is called feedback. Because of the feedback, the sender modifies his message or mode of communication to make it more effective. For Instance, if we talk about a famous film ‘Rang De Basanti’. Here, the sender is the director of the film Rakesh Om Prakash Mehra. The message is the film itself, the channel is cinema, receiver is the audience and the feedback of the film is that it was a hit. ________________________________________________________________________________ Elements of communication The elements involved in communication process are: Sender Message Encoding Channel Receiver Decoding Feedback SENDER The sender is the communicator of the message. He is the one who transmits the message. He conceives and initiates the message. He is the one who thinks of an idea that he wants to communicate and accordingly fixes on a specific channel, to the capacity of the receiver. He transmits the message in such manner that it is easily understandable to the receiver. MESSAGE Message can be defined as a data, idea or information, spoken or written, to be passed from one person to another. It is the subject matter of communication. It may involve any fact, idea, opinion, figure, attitude or course of action, including information. Message is constructed by a set of codes that has an interpretation and an individual understanding to both sender and the receiver. The code could be verbal, non-verbal or written. A code can be defined as group of symbols that can be structured in a meaningful way. Languages are codes, which contain elements like sounds, letters, words, etc. For instance, a song is a code, which has notes, syntax, tune, rhythm etc. Any form of communication thus requires code. Thus, message exists in the mind of the sender, who selects a set of codes to encode the message according to the needs of receiver. ENCODING The process of converting the subject matter into a set of codes or symbols is called encoding. The transmission of a message from sender to the receiver requires the use of codes. Therefore, the sender plans to encode the message in a particular way, depending upon the receptive power of the receiver. The sender or the communicator constructs the message using a set of codes. These codes encode the ideas for the receiver in a specific format and thereafter are delivered to its destination in the form of a message. CHANNEL After message is encoded in a format, sender decides a channel to transmit the message. Communication channel refers to medium or media through which the message is disseminated. The channel or mode of communication should be selected by the sender in such a way that it is fully understood by the receiver. For example, if the message is a song, the channel becomes the audio medium of communication. If the message is in written forms, the channel can be in the form of letters, reports, manuals, circulars, notes, books etc. Television and films use audio-visual channels of communication. RECEIVER Receiver refers to the person to whom the message is intended. Sender of the message constructs a particular message for the receiver. The receiver decodes the message and understands it. He should be mentally and emotionally prepared to receive the message. Message should be conveyed in such a manner that the receiver is able to comprehend it fully. An effective communication can not take place without the presence of receiver. He receives, interprets, perceives, understands and acts upon the message. For example if the message is a film, the receiver is the audience. DECODING When encoded message is translated and understood by the receiver, it is called decoding. The receiver converts the symbols, words or signs received from the sender to know the meaning of the message. Decoding of the message depends on the perception and the interpretation of the receiver alone. Decoding makes the message clearer and it is converted into ordinary understandable language by the receiver. FEEDBACK On receiving the message, the reactions given by the receiver is called his feedback. Feedback is very essential in the process of communication. The continuity in communication is established only when feedback is generated. Communication is a process of action and reaction. Exchange of responses is an imperative thing in this process. Unless the sender is not aware of the response or feedback of the receiver, he cannot communicate further to make the communication effective. The sending back of knowledge about the message to the transmitter is known as feedback. For example, if the film is a message, the receiver is the audience, the feedback becomes the responses of the audience i.e. if they liked the film or not. Assignments Class Assignments Whispering Gallery Play the game ‘Whispering Gallery’. The game can be played with a group of 10-15 students. A class can be divided into three or four such groups. The game begins with a group leader whispering a message to the first member of the group, who then whispers it to the second and so on, till the message reaches the last member of the group. The leader checks to see how much the message has been changed. All groups may discuss the reasons for the transformation of the messages while they were playing the game. Write down what the game tells about the communication process. Home Assignments Draw the process of communication. Fill the following table: Summing Up Communication is often considered as an activity only. In reality, it is actually a process. The process of communication includes transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills, and knowledge. This is done with the help of symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs, drawings, and illustrations, etc. Again, communication is the process by which we understand and in turn try to be understood by others. It is dynamic, constantly changing and shifting in response to the overall situation. Therefore, communication can be described as the interchange of thoughts or ideas. This is also referred as sharing of meaning. The thought is conceived by the sender and reaches the receiver after going through all the steps in the ‘information transfer’ or communication process. The sender first process the thought he has received for clarity as to what exactly he wants to convey to his receiver. Once there is clarity in the message to be transmitted sender decides channel through which he wants to convey the message. When the message reaches the receiver he interprets the message and follows the same steps that were followed by the sender. Possible answers to Self-Check questions (c) We cannot communicate through gestures. Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver-Response of the receiver Sender, Message, Encoding, Channel, Decoding, Receiver, Feedback True Encoding (a) Converting message in an understandable language. Terminal Questions Explain the components of the communication process Explain Harold Lasswell’s process of communication in detail. According to Wilbur Schramm, what are the three essential things to the process of communication? Explain in detail. Suggested Further Readings 1. Communication- C.S Rayudu (Himalaya Publishing House) 2. Mass Communication in India- Kewal J. Kumar (Jaico Publications) 3. Mass Communication Theory- Denis McQuail (Sage) 4. Understanding Mass Communication- Defleur Dennis (Hougptons Mifflin Company) Keywords Source: A place from which something comes, arises, or is obtained; origin. Transmission: To send or forward something to a recipient or destination. Response: An answer or reply, as in words or in some action. Destination: The place to which a person, thing or a message travels or is sent. Feedback: A reaction or response to a particular process or activity. Receiver: A person or audience that is being informed. Channel: A medium, carrier or a method through which something is directed. Encoding: To convert a message into a form that can be received by the receiver. Decoding: To convert a message from code into ordinary language. Interpretation: An explanation of the meaning of anothers artistic or creative work; an elucidation.

Free College Essays - Character Analysis in The Portable Phonograph :: Portable Phonograph Essays

The Portable Phonograph - Character Analysis    Walter Van Tilburg Clark's short story, The Portable Phonograph, is a tale about the last survivors in the world after the total destruction of a war. The author gives clues and hints of this throughout the beginning by writing in a narative voice and describing the scene in dark war-like terms. The characters are then introduced as a group of men huddled around a fire. The older of the men, Doctor Jenkins, is the leader and his character is full of personality that can be analyzed by the reader. He is the owner of the shelter that they meet in. This paper will point out the different aspects of the old man in this story and state conclusions that can be drawn from them. The men in this story are obviously amused by the slightest little things. They occupy themselves through book readings from a collection that one man has. Each of the men has their contribution to the group and together they endure a time of devastation by entertaining each other. The older man has a record player that he brings out once a week for the listening pleasure of the group. He is very proud of this treasure. It has sustained through these hard times just as he has and he limits his use of it to make it last. He owns only three steel needles and he gets one out to use because on this particular occasion, their is a musician visitor with them. The other men act as excited as children. They listen to the record and then leave the doctor's house. Doctor Jenkins is nervous and suspicious at the end of the story when the other men leave. "With nervous hands he lowered the piece of canvas which served as his door, and pegged it at the bottom. Then quickly quietly, looking at the piece of canvas frequently, he slipped the records in the case..." (Clark, page 241). He feels that "everything he has" is at risk with the greed that a time like this could produce in the other men. He is secure and comfortable with the things that he has and he doesn't trust the others. He then hides his treasures away in a safe place after they leave. As he gets into his bed he feels the "comfortable piece of lead pipe" with his hand.

The Historical Progression of African Americans Essay -- American Hist

Permanent struggle for civil rights by the African Americans accompanied the historical progression of the African American society (Booker T. and Fitzhugh W. 2002). The African Americans had struggled for many years to have the same opportunities as the white Americans. During this time, there was a civil war aimed at liberating the African Americans who had been made slaves by the principal white Americans. However, the civil war did not improve the lives of the African Americans in America. The struggle for equal liberties was a journey that began in the year 1865 and ended in the year of 1876. Today, America is a powerful nation with a difficult past that holds a bright future. People of diverse ethnicities and backgrounds can share the same rights, positions of power, education, and all other functions that were once only for the white people of America. Though African Americans suffered tough injustices in previous years, their commitment and determination enabled them overcome the adversities that they faced on a daily basis and win their battle. Many aspects of African American life such as politics, culture and social development allowed African Americans to gain power in the United States over time. They had displayed much of the same qualities as the white workers in America and would prove that their former life as a slave would not deter them from becoming economically independent and successful in America. Although this did not happen immediately, it shows that they were determined and ready to lead normal lives and take their rightful places in society and in th e economy. Several factors had contributed to the historical progression of African Americans. Many social, cultural, eco... ...Nazarene movements. The African Americans built many churches and schools that further expanded their religious faith. Several changes took place during the historical progression of the African Americans. During the historical progression that started in 1865, changes occurred in social, political, economic and religious aspects of the African Americas. These changes took place at different times and each had different impacts to the lives of the African Americans. At first, African Americans were facing political, economic and social oppression from the white Americans. After a long period of struggle and determination, changes appeared in different aspects that made the lives of African Americans better. Oppression ended and the economic position of the African Americans improved since they had gained high literacy levels and could access better paying jobs.

All the Presidents of India

1| Dr Rajendra Prasad (1884–1963)| | 26 January 1950| 13 May 1962| Dr. S Radhakrishnan| 1952 election page  &  1957 election page Prasad was the first President of independent India from Bihar. [7][8]  He was also an independence activist of the Indian Independence Movement. [9]Prasad was the only president to serve for two terms in office. [4]| 2| Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888–1975)| | 13 May 1962| 13 May 1967| Zakir Hussain| 1962 election page Radhakrishnan was a prominent philosopher, writer, a  Knight of the Realm  and also held the position of  vice chancellor  of the  Andhra University  andBanaras Hindu University. 10]  He was also made a Knight of the  Golden Army of Angels  by  Pope Paul VI. [11]| 3| Zakir Hussain (1897–1969)| | 13 May 1967| 3 May 1969| Varahagiri Venkata Giri| 1967 election page Hussain was vice chancellor of theAligarh Muslim University  and a recipient of  Padma Vibhushan  andBharat Ratna. [12]  He di ed before his term of office was ended. | | Varahagiri Venkata Giri  * (1894–1980)| | 3 May 1969| 20 July 1969| | Giri was appointed as acting president following the death of Hussain. [13]  He resigned in a few months to take part in the presidential elections. [5]| | Muhammad Hidayatullah  * 1905–1992)| | 20 July 1969| 24 August 1969| | Hidayatullah served as the  Chief Justice of India, and was a recipient of the  Order of the British Empire. [14]  He served as acting president until the election of Giri as the President of India. | 4| Varahagiri Venkata Giri (1894–1980)| | 24 August 1969| 24 August 1974| Gopal Swarup Pathak| 1969 election page Giri is the only person to have served as both an acting president and president of India. He was a recipient of the Bharat Ratna, and has functioned as Indian Minister of Labour and High Commissioner to  Ceylon  (Sri Lanka). [15]| 5| Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed 1905–1977)| | 24 August 1974| 11 February 1977| Basappa Danappa Jatti| 1974 election page Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed served as a Minister before being elected as president. He died in 1977 before his term of office ended, and was the second Indian president to have died during a term of office. [16]| | Basappa Danappa Jatti  * (1912–2002)| | 11 February 1977| 25 July 1977| | Jatti was the vice president of India during Ahmed's term of office, and was sworn in as acting president upon Ahmed's death. He earlier functioned as the Chief Minister for the State ofMysore. [16][17]| 6| Neelam Sanjiva Reddy 1913–1996)| | 25 July 1977| 25 July 1982| Muhammad Hidayatullah| 1977 election page N. S. Reddy was the first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh State. Reddy was the only Member of Parliament from the Janata Party to get elected from Andhra Pradesh. [18]  He was unanimously elected Speaker of the  Lok Sabha  on 26 March 1977 and relinquished this office on 13 July 1977 to become the 6th President of India. | 7| Gia ni Zail Singh (1916–1994)| | 25 July 1982| 25 July 1987| Ramaswamy Venkataraman| 1982 election page In March 1972, Singh assumed the position of chief Minister of Punjab, and in 1980, he became Union Home Minister. 19]| 8| Ramaswamy Venkataraman (1910–2009)| | 25 July 1987| 25 July 1992| Shankar Dayal Sharma| 1987 election page In 1942, Venkataraman was jailed by the British for his involvement in theIndia's independence  movement. [20]After his release, he was elected to independent India’s Provisional Parliament as a member of the Congress Party in 1950 and eventually joined the central government, where he first served as Minister of Finance and Industry and later as Minister of Defence. [21]| 9| Shankar Dayal Sharma 1918–1999)| | 25 July 1992| 25 July 1997| Kocheril Raman Narayanan| 1992 election page Sharma was Chief Minister of  Madhya Pradesh, and the Indian Minister for Communications. He has also served as the governor of  Andhra Pradesh,  Punjaband  Maharashtra. [22]| 10| Kocheril Raman Narayanan (1920–2005)| | 25 July 1997| 25 July 2002| Krishan Kant| 1997 election page Narayanan served as India's ambassador to Thailand, Turkey, China and United States of America. He received doctorates in Science and Law and was also a chancellor in several universities. [23]  He was also the vice-chancellor of  Jawaharlal Nehru University. 24]| 11| A. P. J. Abdul Kalam (1931–)| | 25 July 2002| 25 July 2007| Bhairon Singh Shekhawat| 2002 election page Kalam, was a scientist who played a leading role in the development of India's ballistic missile and nuclear weapons programs. [25]  Kalam also received theBharat Ratna. | 12| Pratibha Patil (1934–)| | 25 July 2007| Incumbent| Mohammad Hamid Ansari| 2007 election page Patil is the first woman to become the President of India. She was also the first female Governor of Rajasthan. [26][27]| ————————â⠂¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- [edit]Timeline